This essay covers the story and the myth, told in the sacred Hindu texts, of the third reincarnation of Vishnu as a wild boar (Varaha) and of how in this form he rescued the Earth in the semblance of a Goddess from the bottom of the ocean.
Needles to say, the popularity of the tale was so highly spread over the population, that soon images representing the whole vicissitudes started to appear in very important places where Vishnu was worshipped and where his cult was practiced.
Although these images first appeared in pre-Gupta period, is only when the sovereignty of the emperor Chandragupta II started to gain territory over the previous rulers and when India was quickly expanding to have a unify land, that the iconography of the Varaha sculptures reached his maximum importance.
The time under the king Chandragupta II, that succeeded his father Samudragupta, is until now considered to be the culminating age, the classic age of Indian culture and art. If the Kushan period was the golden time for Buddhist art and when the stupas were built, the Gupta period was then the golden age of Hindu art. The old religion was taking over Buddhism, and even if one of the most beautiful Buddha images were carved in the Gupta style, is indeed the time when the Vedas texts are coming back in the common imaginary and the Puranas mythical stories are written.
The empire under Chandragupta II (AD 380-413) was united in both central and western India and an important traffic of trade gave the possibility to expand religious and artistic ideals. The power of the king with all his conquests and achievements was symbolical represented as the mighty God Vishnu coming back in one of his avatars (reincarnations) to save the world from a state of decadence and instability.
This essay will mainly cover the study of one particular image of Varaha, situated in cave number 5, in the Udaygiri Hill in Madhya Pradesh.
I will give its historical background as well as explain its iconographic meaning with the help of its mythological resource, even though the tale had some variants throughout the different texts in time.
THE GUPTAS
India was having until the 4th century AD political and military turmoil. The Kushan Empire in the north was in ruins and several invasions from the frontier regions of Asia were expanding their territories. The Sakas rulers, with their dynasties became very powerful over the central and western parts of the country. Specially the Western Kshatrapas or Westen Satraps, contemporaneous of the Kushans, along the centuries managed to rule the Saurashtra and the Malwa regions (now central India, Madhya Pradesh), where its main city, Ujjain, was an important social and trade center by the first centuries AD, and in fact, the emperor Ashoka ruled over the city in his youth.
This age of uncertainty and of foreign invasions was soon demanding the emergency of a leader. And it was in the northern region of Magadha that the Guptas built up their first kingdom. The Chinese traveler I-tsing traced the origins of the Guptas around the main capital of Magadha, Pataliputra. There he heard of Sri-Gupta (270-290 AD) and of his successor, Ghatotkacha (290-305 AD) as the first rulers of this dynasty.
But their strength or their influence was perhaps of no importance since little or no archaeological data such as coinage evidence was found.
The real first leader was Chandragupta I (305-325 AD). He started to expand his kingdom up to the Ganges valley and with political matrimonial alliance with powerful families of other regions he endured his status with the title of King of Kings, Maharajadhiraja. His son, Samudragupta (335-380 AD) was even a greater conqueror. He enlarged the Gupta kingdom defeating the kings of the Vindhyan and Deccan regions. He was one of the greatest kings of India. A large number of coins were found stating his importance not only as a warrior, but also as a patron of arts and literature (in few coins he is shown playing a harp like string musical instrument, perhaps the lyre or Veena). His status of king was of divine order, “the king returned to earth with a mandate to rule as a universal sovereign” (Willis 1995, p.617). To remark his triumphs and the importance of his conquests, he performed the horse sacrifice (Ashwamedha yajna). As remaining evidence, we have a series of stone horses as commemorating statues that remind us of the ritual aspects of the monarchy. The rituals were of divine order and were conducted by brahmanas priests.
“Kings were dependent on brahmanas in this scheme because brahmanas were the only ones qualified to carry out the prescribed rituals. They had to receive gifts for conducting the ritual and be supported through village grants so that their sacred knowledge would be preserved and perpetuated.” (Willis 1995, p.618)
All these belligerent achievements are of no secondary importance to the development of art, culture and science under his reign. The creation of the empire was supporting of Buddhist and Jain cultures too; their arts were most influential during this period. And Samudragupta’s son Chandragupta II (380-413 AD) succeeded in his father continuity. He expanded the realm conquering the Saka Western Satraps in several regions, like in Gujarat and in Malwa, incorporating so, Ujjain as a second capital of the empire together with Pataliputra, and all the Saka kingdoms into the Gupta one, establishing a control from coast to coast. His fame and popularity are shown in a large number of coins, perhaps the larger amount found for the Gupta period, demonstrating evidence of prosperity and dominion. He gave himself the title of Vikramaditya or Sun of Power, and by entering into alliance with the kings of the south (Deccan) through arranged marriage, he extended “the limits of his empire to the ocean (Bay of Bengal) on the east and the sea (Arabian Sea) in the west by the conquest of the Vanga and Aparanta respectively.” (Nagar 1993, p.3)
He was perhaps the most venerated of the Gupta monarchs, the Legendary King, the one with divine supremacy over the foreign invasions. During his reign many works of art to commemorate him were prepared. We found, in addition to seals and coins, various pillars, the iron pillar at Delhi is the most famous. “The content of the inscription indicates that it was a royal record; its sole purpose was to laud Bhumipati Candra, possibly king Chandragupta II (…) that acquired supreme sovereignty on earth.” (Willis 1995, p.614)
Together with these pillars we have sculptures testifying the importance of the Vaisnavism cult. In fact, Vishnu was worshipped in the area conquered by the Guptas (around Madhya Pradesh) since the 2nd century BC. During this time several inscriptions were found. “Epigraphical records which mentions exclusively the name of Vasudeva-Krsna in the Besnagar inscription of Heliodoros” (Rangarajan 1997, p.3) show that this cult was popular in that society. In fact, “the earliest image of Vishnu in Madhya Pradesh is at present known as Caturbhuja Bhagavan and being worshipped at Burhikar near Malhar in the Bilaspur district. It belongs to the 2nd century BC” (Rangarajan 1997, p.4)
Therefore, the study of the Varaha avatar of Vishnu in such areas that I will explain, is not based on coincidence. This cult was already there, but with the coming of Chandragupta II with its victories over the foreign rulers, the Vishnu images started to spread according to their myth over the entire province.
THE MYTH
Like for every myth, in India there is never a single version of a story. Therefore, the tale of the Varaha avatar had different meanings and different origins during the coming of time. The literature that tells us the main characteristics of the story is based on the Vedas and on the Puranas. At the beginning, in the Vedas, Varaha is associated with cosmogonical aspects rather than being identified with Vishnu where the boar served as the sacrificial animal.
The god of creation Prajapati was completely alone with his creation, and “there was water everywhere and no sign of Earth was found anywhere. Then the creator took the form of a Boar, found the Earth under water and brought it to the surface. Then he expanded it.” (Rangarajan 1997, p.23) With this form he uplifted the goddess Earth so to establish a primary creation. The goddess was at first identified with the name of Prthvi.
Later on, in the Puranic texts, is Brahma who takes over Prajapati, and he’s saving the Earth from the underworld (Patala) or the bottom of the ocean with the Boar form.
In some texts there is confusion between a boar called Emusa and a boar identified with Prajapati, and for some authors the two are different while for others are identical. But the story itself has little difference in both versions. (Rangarajan 1997)
The main factor is that the Earth is lifted up after a period when it had sunk into the dark abyss of the waters after a deluge. But with the expansion of vishniusm the Brahma character is transformed into Vishnu. “The place of Prajapati Brahma as the creator of the universe was taken away by Vishnu in the name of the protector of the good under the doctrine of incarnation.” (Rangarajan 1997, p.28) And here the story is little modified, and several different Puranas have multiple versions.
But the main features are based upon the existence of two twin brothers, Hiranyaksha and Hiranyakashipu (who also have different names) that are the gatekeepers and guardians of Vishnu’s heaven and are fall from grace and cursed to find salvation only in opposition to him. Hiranyaksha became a demon in eternal cosmic battle against Vishnu and resolved to take the Earth and bring her to the Nether world, to the bottom of the ocean. Here the Earth is also called Bhoomavedi. So, the Devas (nature spirits) including Brahma started to pry to Vishnu to save and rescue the Earth. Thus Vishnu, in the form of the Boar started looking for her. When he actually found her, in digging his tusk into the ocean-bed, he saved her, he lifted her up and placed her gently on the surface of the waters so she could expand again at a safety position (but on certain versions she is placed upon the head of the Serpent Sesa or Ananta who’s abode is in Nara, the primal waters where Vishnu resides).
Seeing what happened, the Asura (demon) Hiranyaksha wanted to fight back in revange. So, they started a furious battle where Brahma was also present exhorting the boar, and Vishnu-Varaha smashed his tusks behind the Asura’s ears and killed him.
Brahma and the Devas praised the Lord and chanted his glories.
The function of the tale in the Puranas plays symbolic and social importance.
“With the narration of Varaha as the creator of the universe and the avatara of Vishnu, the Puranas relate Varaha to the sacrifice and call it Yajna Varaha. In this form they correlate each and every limb of the Boar’s body to each and every component of the sacrifice. In this connection one should be very clear that Varaha as symbol of sacrifice and Varaha as creator or savior are not different from each other. They are one and the same. They are intertwinement of symbols both representing each in its own way, power and efficiency.” (Rangarajan 1997, p.29)
The function of this Vishnu avatar is then to restore the world. His entire being is coming to save the problematic conditions of men in relation to their historic period. Every time there is a danger, the cosmic forces of the God will come into action to rescue any inequities and to reincarnate himself to balance the principles of creation.
It is considered usually that the avatars are ten, even though it is often believed that they are infinite and innumerable. Their order is the following: The fish (Matsya), the tortoise (Kurma), the boar (Varaha), the monkey (Vamana), the half man half animal (Narashima, usually represented as a lion), the warrior (Parashrama), Rama, Krishna, Buddha and the last one called Kalki or Kali who is represented as a warrior riding a white horse and he is still to come to save the world.
For every avatar there exists a collection of myths and legends, and every one of them has a symbolic function and meaning in relation to their historical circumstances. The Varaha reincarnation, for instance, represents the quality of the boar as an animal that can survive on land, and it feels comfortable in waters. Therefore, its capacity to rescue the Earth from the abyss of the ocean fits perfectly with its own being.
But what is most important is that the image of the boar as a saviour may correspond to many leaders, rulers and kings that came to power to reestablish turmoil and confusion between the populations. I am interested, for the purpose of the essay, to relate the figure of Varaha as a representation of king Chandragupta II who, with all his conquests, resolved to expulse the foreign Saka invaders from the Indian territory to unify the north and west part of the country in an age of social, economic and cultural wealth.
ICONOGRAPHY
One of the prominent images of Varaha that is extremely representative of the Gupta period is indeed the one found in one of the caves of the Udayagiri Hill, nearby Bhilsa in Madhya Pradesh. The location of the monuments is of particular importance. They are strategically positioned within other important places like Sanchi, where the popular Buddhist stupas where built, and the ancient second capital of the kingdom, Vidisa. Therefore, is not by chance that this city is located in the surroundings of two main cities that since the 2nd century BC showed a Buddhist culture. The wealth of the whole area is because was at the “junction of the rivers Bes and Betwa (…) and ancient trade routes, one running west to east from the busy sea-port of the western littoral through Ujjayini, Kusambi, Kasi to Pataliputra, and the other south-west to north-east from the Andhra capital of Pratishana to Sravasti as well as to other cities in Kosala and Panchala”. (Patil 1948, p.3)
Once identified the background of Cave number 5, is necessary to explain the meaning of the colossal relief of the Varaha-Vishnu.
This zooanthropomorphic image is depicted with the body of a man but with the head of a boar. In this form the Varaha is called NrVaraha, but since in the image we see the figure of the Goddess Earth, or Bhu, or Prithivi clinging to the right tusk of the avatara, he is called Bhu Varaha. (Rangarajan 1997, p.131)
The position of the God is in ‘alidhasana’ proud pose, “symbol of quiet strength and confidence” (Sohoni p.49) He is adorned with a long flower garland over its body called Vanamala Kinjalkini made of 1000 lotus, with ‘valayas’ (armlets), ‘dhoti’ drape on the waist and a folded scarf around his neck. His left foot is standing on the serpent Sesa that is hooded with thirteen heads and he’s looking in ‘anjali’ pose as a reverence to Varaha and to the Earth that is beautiful covered with ornaments like ‘kanthahara’ (earring), a ‘katibandha’ (chain-shaped girdle) and a transparent ‘sari’ around her waist. Her position is there to clarify the myth where she is saved by the boar Vishnu with his tusk from the ocean that is cleverly represented all around the lower part of the relief with continuous wavy lines. She is standing with “her feet perched on a half-blossomed lotus”. (Mitra 1963, p.99)
On the right side of Vishnu, “standing on a half-open lotus is a female, possibly Lakshmi, holding the long stalk (‘nala-danda’) of a fully-blossomed lotus, the latter serving as a sunshade (‘kamal-atapatra’) over Varaha” (Mitra 1963, p.99) The lotus upon she is standing is a ‘pitha’, a platform to state her position as a Goddess next to his husband Vishnu.
On the left side of the God there are the main figures in the composition. We see the human headed Sesa serpent and next to him a male figure which has no head. There are many theories about the identity of this man, and the most prominent is the one that believes he is King Chandragupta II himself. Although someone argues that is “far fetched to believe that the common human being can be a part of the primeval ocean where Vishnu sleeps” (Rangarajan 1997, p.132) and identify him with a sea-God, maybe Samudraraja or Varuna, (Rangarajan 1997, Cunningham) or even perhaps the donor of the Cave. (Mitra 1963)
I personally believe that the man is the emperor, and that he’s not a “common human”, but, as I said before, a ruler with divine characters.
He probably was depicted with the intention of giving pry and adoration to the God Vishnu, and so, depicted in a kneeling and respectful position, although a “somewhat inconvenient posture for a king (…), but prepared to hold a gift from a superior authority” (Sohoni, p.51)
The sea-God Varuna is shown facing the Varaha. He is holding a ‘Manipatra’ (a pot full of jewls) and has a flower on the head. Above him we see the two river Goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, coming down from the heavens to the sea and shown by undulating lines while descending from above. “They are accompanied by musicians and ‘apsaras’ (female spirits of nature) from the heaven (…) and standing on a crocodile and a tortoise respectively.” (Rangarajan 1997, p.132) The very same image is represented twice. The Goddesses are also accompanied by the Vidyaharas (semi-divine popular beings) playing instruments and dancing in a joyful moment.
The rest of the panel is represented with four rows, where the first two portray thirty-two figures of sages standing in ‘samabhanga’ position. They wear the ‘jatamukuta’, the headgears of Shiva, and are believed to be the inhabitants of Janaloka, the realm of Brahmand where many sages as the popular Rishis resides and “who sought shelter amongst the bristles upon the scriptural body of the Boar when the deity plunged into the lowest regions.” (Rangarajan 1997, p.133) Mitra reject the idea that these are ‘asuras’ sages and opts for the opinion that they are Ekadasa Rudras or gods because of the way the dress and because they have a third eye on then forehead. (Mitra 1963, p.101)
The other two rows are represented by forty Devas, nature spirits or enlightened mortals that are looking with reverence towards the Varaha God. Brahma and Shiva are identified on the very top of the panel.
CONCLUSION
The time of the Guptas was extremely wealthy. The richness of the age is particularly shown in the details of the image that most represents the power and the divine position of the emperor.
Chandragupta II was perhaps the prominent figure in a time that a hero or a true leader was needed. I demonstrated that his deeds and his courageous victories over the enemy symbolically represented the coming of the God Vishnu in one of his infinite avatars to rescue the world from chaos and disorder, from causes like “excess of population, misdeeds of the sinful or overambitious rulers or demons, the deluge…” (Nagar 1993, p.36)
The wild pig was highly popular in the arts, literature and folklore of the era.
He entered in the imaginary of the population as many other animals in other ancient civilizations, because of his behavior, of his roar sound that might have sounded as a thunder coming from the gods, and for other reasons that are obscure to us.
The Varaha image was also largely represented in completely zoomorphic form like, for instance, the famous and colossal statues in Eran, Badoh, Khajuraho and Karitalai. They were part indeed of a society based on the recovered Hindu religion where the practice of worship was of huge socio-cultural importance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Banerjea J.N. The Development of Hindu Iconography, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi 2002.
- Mitra D. Varaha-Cave of Udayagiri – An Iconographic Study, Journal of Asiatic Society Vol.5, Nos 3, 4, 1963.
- Nagar S.L. Varaha in Indian Art, Culture and Literature, Aryan Books, New Delhi, 1993.
- Patil D.R. The Monuments of the Udaygiri Hill, Alijah Darbar Press, 1948.
- Rangarajan H. Varaha Images in Madhya Pradesh, An Iconographic Study, Somaia Publications, Delhi, 1997.
- Sohoni S.V. Varaha Avatara Panel at Udayagiri, Vidisa.
- Willis M. D. Patronage during the Gupta Period: Epigraphic Evidence for the Activities of the Gupta Monarchs, South Asian Archaeology, 1995.
- Zimmer H. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization, ed. by Campbell J., Bollingen Series, Princeton 1974.